RICHARD NIXON: Post-War American Presidents (5)

[This is a series describing the 12 Post-War American Presidents from a British perspective.]

Richard Nixon had a long and eventful political career. It was very uneven; early bright success and later sharp setbacks, stunning foreign policy achievements countered by a vigorous Presidency ending in humiliation and disgrace. Finally rehabilitation, earning him a place of respect, if not affection, with the American people.

Richard Nixon

Richard Milhous Nixon (1913-94) was born into a poor Quaker family in Yorba Linda, California. When the family ranch failed they moved to Whittier Ca, where he attended the local college. His father ran a grocery store and gas station. Financial restraints prevented Richard taking up an offered place at Harvard but eventually he gained a full scholarship to respected Duke University Law School - Nixon graduated in 1937 and always spoke of his subsequent debt to Duke. He then practised law for 5 years in Whittier but in 1942 moved to a government job in Washington. This Quaker upbringing gave Nixon a traditional, moralistic outlook and perhaps explains his long friendship with evangelist Billy Graham.

Nixon set aside any residual Quaker pacifism (which would have gained him exemption) by joining the US Navy in 1942 as US involvement in WW2 developed. Nixon, a lieutenant, was mainly busy on logistical duties in the South Pacific but did not see combat. On demobilisation, Nixon was chosen as a Republican California candidate for the House and he won the 1946 election. He became a member of the House Un-American Activities Committee and rose to national prominence in 1948 by his persistent pursuit of senior State Department official Alger Hiss, who was accused of being a Communist agent. In a turbulent case, Hiss was eventually jailed for perjury in 1950, on controversial evidence. In 1950 Nixon was elected to the Senate and in the overwrought spirit of the times was a prominent anti-communist.

Nixon already had the insistent, vigorous look, the ski-jump nose and the widow’s peak hairline later so familiar (the jowls came even later!). His rich baritone voice was an asset but his eyes were darting and unappealing. He was ambitious and hard-working yet socially awkward and unrelaxed.

Nixon campaigns for the Senate in 1950

Coming from populous California, Nixon was a natural candidate for the Vice-Presidential slot on the 1952 Republican ticket; his youth complemented Ike’s venerable image. He was duly drafted and with Republican sentiment growing the Eisenhower bandwagon gained momentum. Suddenly Nixon faced a crisis. He benefited from an election expenses fund provided by his supporters: this was legal but exposed him to the suspicion of being under outside influences. The Democrats screamed foul and demanded he be dropped from the ticket and the press was hostile. Eisenhower’s support was lukewarm. Boldly Nixon hired a TV studio and broadcast an address seen or heard by 60m Americans.

This was his famous “Checkers” speech; he denied any wrong-doing, promising to return any gifts improperly received except one - a spaniel puppy called Checkers which his 6-year-old daughter Tricia loved to distraction. The US public was enchanted, support for Nixon flooded in and Ike fully endorsed Nixon. It was a master-stroke even though Nixon glossed over the substance of the complaint against him. Nixon thereafter always favoured TV reporters to those from the written press who, he bitterly believed, only sought to traduce him.

Ike and Nixon won the election comfortably against Stevenson and Sparkman. Nixon was, unlike previous V-Ps, given real responsibilities. He deputised for Ike at Cabinet, during Ike’s frequent absences; he chaired various committees and he was sent on many overseas trips, deepening his soon-to-be extensive knowledge of foreign affairs. In Latin America he was well received in Mexico but spat upon in Venezuela and his vehicle attacked by a pipe-wielding mob in Peru. He visited Indo-China and Africa. In Moscow in 1959 he famously confronted an aggressive Khrushchev in the “kitchen debate” when hosting a US exhibition there, giving a feisty performance.

Nixon and Khrushchev cross swords in 1959

Nixon was a natural choice as Republican Presidential candidate in 1960. He chose ex-Senator Henry Cabot Lodge as his running mate and he was pitted against Jack Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson. The election was very close: Kennedy squeaked in with only a 0.2% winning margin in the popular vote, and some dubiously honest results from Texas and Illinois. Nixon erred in wanting to campaign in every state and not concentrating on the “swing” states; he also did not do himself justice especially in the first TV debate with JFK. His reluctance to use make-up resulted in him looking pasty-faced and famously with “5-o’clock shadow”. His defeat was a shattering personal blow.

Nixon then endured some wilderness years. In 1962 he ran for Governor of California, rather unenthusiastically and was defeated by the incumbent Pat Brown. He seemed to indicate that he was leaving politics when he told reporters that this was “his last press conference” and that “they would not have Nixon to kick around anymore”. But he shook off this paranoid and self-pitying mood. He moved to New York, joining a leading legal firm. In 1964 he loyally campaigned for Barry Goldwater and was not blamed for the ensuing Democratic landslide. He gained further Republican credit by campaigning during the 1966 mid-term elections when his party made a comeback. By 1967 he had decided to run again for the Presidency in the 1968 election.

Nixon in typically combative mood

Nixon makes his point

The 1968 election was a highly dramatic one. In January, LBJ only narrowly won the New Hampshire primary and decided not to stand again. With Bobby Kennedy assassinated in June 1968, the Democrats drafted liberal V-P Hubert Humphrey as their candidate in their Chicago convention, marred by violent anti-war demonstrations outside. The Democrats were further disadvantaged by Governor George Wallace of Alabama standing on a segregationist ticket.

Nixon was easily enough nominated and added Governor Spiro Agnew of Maryland as his vice-president to attract moderate Southerners. He offered the electorate stability in a tumultuous world and he beat Humphrey and Muskie by a very slim percentage of the popular vote but convincingly in the Electoral College; George Wallace and General Curtis LeMay carried 5 states in the Deep South.

Nixon faced a multitude of problems. Although the Moon landings took place on his watch, his glory was largely reflected and he cut back NASA programmes drastically. Big spending days were over and the US felt recessionary pressures. A momentous decision was taken to abandon the 1946 Bretton Woods system in 1971. The dollar floated, as did most other key currencies and convertibility into gold was ended. The international financial community rode this shock confidently.

Nixon had a strong interest in foreign affairs. After initially intensifying the Vietnam War by bombing Cambodia, he decided to wind down US military participation. Anti-War sentiment was clamorous and the tragic shootings of 4 demonstrators at Kent State University, Ohio, polarised opinion further. In close consultation with his National Security adviser and later Secretary of State, Henry Kissinger, Nixon sought to improve relations with China and the USSR partly in the hope they would pressurise Hanoi to negotiate an end of the War. After clandestine diplomacy, Nixon announced his visit to Beijing and it duly took place in 1972. He briefly met the ageing Mao but had more substantive discussions with Zhou Enlai.

Nixon toasts Zhou in 1972

Nixon and Kissinger were adept at the practice of Realpolitik. Recognition of Red China and steps towards normalising relations between the two giant powers predictably caused consternation in Moscow which always feared “The Yellow Horde”. The communist world had been neatly divided to the benefit of the US and the West.

Nixon confers with Kissinger

 Nixon had a series of 3 summits with Russian leader Leonid Brezhnev and struck up a friendly relationship. He persuaded Brezhnev to participate in the SALT talks, limiting the deployment of ruinously expensive nuclear weapons. A treaty eventually emerged. The US/USSR relationship was however no love-in, as during attempts to end the Arab-Israeli Yom Kippur War in 1973, Russia threatened to intervene unilaterally and Nixon ordered a full-scale nuclear alert before Brezhnev backed down. The crisis sparked off an Arab oil embargo, damaging to Europe more than to the US.  Reverting to an earlier persona, Nixon deplored Marxist Allende in Chile and was not sorry to see him deposed and killed in Pinochet’s violent coup in 1973.  Nixon negotiated the “Vietnamisation” of the War and the Paris Peace Accords of 1974 marked the rather undignified withdrawal of US forces from Vietnam. However, a nightmare had ended to great US relief. Nixon handled these matters with exemplary single-mindedness. Meanwhile in 1972 Nixon and Agnew had brushed aside the challenge of McGovern and Shriver (who only won DC and Massachusetts) at the Presidential election.  Nixon was at the height of his popularity but Nemesis was at hand.

 In June 1972, 5 individuals were arrested after a break-in at the offices of the Democratic National Committee at the Watergate complex in DC. This triggered off an agonising saga as the finance had been provided by Republican sources and the suspicion arose that the White House knew of the break-in. Over the next two years, people close to Nixon were implicated notably his Chief of Staff HR Haldeman, John Ehrlichman, domestic affairs assistant and White House Counsel John Dean, all three of whom later received jail sentences. Nixon denied all prior knowledge but a special prosecutor was appointed to investigate. When it was later revealed that all conversations in the President’s office were taped, the tapes were sub- poena’ed and despite Nixon pleading executive privilege, were turned over to the prosecutor. The tapes clearly showed that Nixon had sought to obstruct the investigation contrary to all his duties. To make things worse the tapes showed a low level of dignity by the President with the language being that of the barrack-room, not that of the Friends’ Meeting Room of his Quaker upbringing. For his abuse of power, Nixon faced almost certain impeachment and removal by both Houses of Congress. After many private discussions Nixon resigned the Presidency in unprecedented fashion on 9 August 1974. This unedifying event was a total humiliation for Nixon although he kept up a brazen face.

Nixon leaves the White House to avoid impeachment

Nixon was succeeded by Gerald Ford (Spiro Agnew had been obliged to resign earlier as vice-president as he faced bribery and tax evasion charges). To save the nation further embarrassment and heart-searching Ford gave, and Nixon accepted, a full Pardon for any wrong-doing, a controversial concession at a highly charged moment, but probably wise.

Gerald Ford announces a Pardon for Nixon

Nixon was in disgrace for several years but gradually he worked his way back to some kind of respectability. He wrote on foreign affairs, travelled widely and his expert tours d’horizon were valued at conferences. He attended public occasions with other ex-Presidents. He maintained his innocence of orchestrating Watergate but in famed TV interviews in 1977 David Frost squeezed a reluctant apology from Nixon to the American people for the trauma he had inflicted upon them.

It cannot be said that Nixon became a national treasure; he had sullied his high Office too much by his criminal behaviour. It was never possible to transform “Tricky Dicky” into Richard the Lionheart. Yet memories are mercifully short and the American people are generous. Many preferred to remember his general domestic competence and his real foreign affairs triumphs. A deeply flawed but patriotic man, Nixon died aged 81 after a stroke in New York in 1994, soberly honoured by his fellow-countrymen.

SMD

19.09.14

Text Copyright © Sidney Donald 2014